浅谈欧洲设计的历史发展论文摘要

从建筑风格衍生出多种室内设计风格，根据设计师和业主审美和爱好的不同，又有各种不同的幻化体。目前较为常见的几种种室内设计风格如下。（一）古典风格（豪华富裕）在装修刚兴起的年代，装修大多追求的是较为豪华富裕的风格。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代初，室内装修往往是炫耀自己身份的一种特殊形式。业主们会要求把各种象征豪华的设计嵌入装修之中，例如彩绘玻璃吊顶、壁炉、装饰面板、装饰木角线等等，而且基本上以类似于巴洛克风格结合国内存在的材料为主要装饰方式。欧式古典风格在空间上追求连续性，追求形体的变化和层次感。室内外色彩鲜艳，光影变化丰富。室内多用带有案的壁纸、地毯、窗帘、床罩、及帐幔以及古典式装饰画或物件；为体现华丽的风格，家具、门、窗多漆成白色，家具、画框的线条部位饰以金线、金边。古典风格是一种追求华丽、高雅的欧洲古典主义，典雅中透着高贵，深沉里显露豪华，具有很强的文化感受和历史内涵。（二）朴素风格（随心所欲）20世纪90年代，在一些地区出现一股家装热。由于受技术和材料所限，那时还没有真正意义上的设计师来进行家装指导，因此随心所欲就是当时的最大写照。业主们开始追求一种整洁明亮的室内效果。时至今日，这种风格仍然是大多数初次置业者装修的首选。（三）精致风格（高贵庄重）在经过近10年的摸索，随着国内居民的生活水平的提高、对外开放的增多，人们开始向往和追求高品质的生活。大约是从20世纪90年代中期开始，人们逐渐在装修中使用精致的装饰材料和家具，尤其是在这个时候，国内的设计师步入家装设计行列，从而带来了一种新的装饰理念。

当新古典主义衰退之后，偌大的欧洲设计界竟然无力形成一种独创的主导风格，而不得不借助于各种历史传统，造成光怪陆离的复古风潮肆意蔓延。新埃及式、新摩尔式、新拜占庭式、新文艺复兴式、新巴洛克式、新罗可可式……形形色色的复古主义、折中主义来势汹涌。这种风格杂陈的现象不仅体现在日用品的设计上，甚至于哥特式的蒸汽机、新埃及式的水压机、罗可可纹样装饰的纺织机等也都粉墨登场了，工业革命中诞生的钢铁巨人纷纷披上了温和的、传统的伪装。在林林总总的复古浪潮中，影响最大、持续最久的是哥特式的复兴。这种风格的盛行有其深刻的社会原因，它既是没落贵族抗拒社会变革、逃避社会现实的曲折反映，又隐含有乌托邦卫士们改革工业化环境、勾画理想社会的一种探索。其中两组哥特式复兴风格的家具，虽然其设计也还称得上精细古雅，但如此沉重繁琐的风格毕竟与工业时代的要求有些格格不入。复古风的盛行揭示出设计界和社会公众在时代变革中的困惑与茫然。与复古风相伴而生的还有装饰风的肆虐。随着新兴资产阶级占据历史的舞台，装饰开始被视作一种炫耀财富与地位的象征。有时候装饰被唯利是图的商人、工厂主作为掩盖材料与构造之低劣、设计与制作之缺陷的一种补救措施；有的时候，它又成为满足人们日益膨胀的虚荣心和享乐需要的工具，变成了虚张声势、华而不实的代名词。1851年伦敦博览会上就充斥着此类粗制滥造、廉价粗俗、冗赘不堪、矫揉造作的装饰。它们不仅不能起到锦上添花的作用，而往往是与功能性的要求背道而驰。一组展出于伦敦博览会的家具产品，虽然它们或在材料的运用上作了一些探索，或在功能的设计上进行了一些创新，但都具有画蛇添足的弊病，对装饰的滥用严重影响了功能性的发挥。

欧洲建筑，历史悠久，它主要经历了这样一些发展阶段：古希腊建筑：（公元前8世纪～公元前1世纪）古代希腊是欧洲文化的发源地，古希腊建筑开起了欧洲建筑的先河。古希腊的发展时期大致为公元前8～前1世纪，即到希腊被罗马兼并为止。古希腊建筑，主要是柱式建筑，属于梁柱体系，早期主要建筑材料是石料。虽然建筑样式比较单一，内部空间封闭简单，但却给予了后世许多艺术以启发。古罗马建筑：（公元1～3世纪）（极盛时期）古罗马时期的建筑承载了古希腊文明中的建筑风格，凸显地中海地区特色，同时又是古希腊建筑的一种发展。古罗马在公元前2世纪成为地中海地区强国，与此同时罗马人也开始了罗马的建设工程。到公元1世纪罗马帝国建立时，罗马城已成为与东方长安城齐名的世界性城市。拜占庭式建筑：公元395年，显赫一时的罗马帝国分裂为东西两个国家，于是这一时期的拜占庭帝国，就产生了拜占庭建筑风格。“拜占庭”原是古希腊的一个城堡。从历史发展的角度来看，拜占庭建筑是在继承古罗马建筑文化的基础上发展起来的，同时，由于地理关系，它又汲取了波斯、两河流域、叙利亚等东方文化，形成了自己的建筑风格。罗曼式建筑：（罗曼式建筑也叫罗马式建筑）是6～12世纪，欧洲基督教流行地区的一种建筑风格。是一种仿古罗马风格的建筑。罗马式建筑风格多见于修道院和教堂，是6世纪到12世纪初欧洲的建筑风格，因采用古罗马式的券、拱而得名。线条简单、明快，造型厚重、敦实，其中部分建筑具有封建城堡的特征，是教会威力的化身。多见于修道院和教堂，给人以雄浑庄重的印象。对后来的哥特式建筑影响很大。哥特式建筑：也译作哥德式建筑。发源于十二世纪的法国，持续至十六世纪，哥特式建筑在当代普遍被称作“法国式”，“哥德式”一词则于文艺复兴后期出现，带有贬意。是一种兴盛于中世纪高峰与末期的建筑风格。它由罗曼式建筑发展而来，为文艺复兴建筑所继承。文艺复兴建筑：十五世纪产生于意大利，后传播到欧洲其它地区，形成带了有各自特点的各国文艺复兴建筑。意大利文艺复兴建筑在文艺复兴建筑中占有最重要的位置。是欧洲建筑史上继哥特式建筑之后出现的一种建筑风格。巴洛克建筑：巴洛克风格是17世纪初至18世纪上半叶流行于欧洲的主要艺术风格。巴洛克建筑起源于17世纪的意大利，在文艺复兴的基础上，将原本罗马人文主义的文艺复兴建筑，添上新的华丽、夸张及雕刻风气，发展出的一种彰现出国家与教会的专制主义的丰功伟业的建筑。洛可可建筑：是18世纪20年代产生于的法国，在巴洛克建筑的基础上发展起来的一种建筑。洛可可本身倒不像是建筑风格，而更像是一种室内装饰艺术。这种风格在反对僵化的古典形式，追求自由奔放的格调和表达世俗情趣等方面起了重要作用，对城市广场、园林艺术以至文学艺术都发生影响，一度在欧洲广泛流行。新古典主义建筑：也叫古典复兴建筑。最早出现于十八世纪中叶欧洲的建筑装饰设计界，以及与之密切相关的家具设计界。是一种新的复古运动。从法国开始。革新派的设计师们开始对传统的作品进行改良简化，运用了许多新的材料和工艺，但保留了古典主义作品典雅端庄的高贵气质。这一风格很快取得了成功，欧洲各地纷纷效仿，新古典主义自此成为欧洲家居文化流派中特色鲜明的重要一支，至今长盛不衰。浪漫主义建筑：浪漫主义建筑是18世纪下半叶到19世纪下半叶，欧美一些国家在文学艺术中的浪漫主义思潮影响下流行的一种建筑风格。浪漫主义在艺术上强调个性，提倡自然主义，主张用中世纪的艺术风格与学院派的古典主义艺术相抗衡。这种思潮在建筑上表现为追求超尘脱俗的趣味和异国情调。折中主义建筑：19世纪上半叶至20世纪初，在欧美一些国家流行的一种建筑风格。这种建筑任意模仿各种建筑风格，或自由组合各种建筑形式，不讲求固定的法式，只讲求比例均衡，注重纯形式美。现代主义建筑：现代主义建筑是指二十世纪中叶，在西方建筑界居主导地位的一种建筑思想。这种建筑强调要摆脱传统建筑形式的束缚，大胆创造适应于工业化社会的条件、要求的崭新建筑。因此具有鲜明的理性主义和激进主义的色彩，又称为现代派建筑。其下又包含多种风格分类。后现代主义建筑：20世纪60年代以来，在美国和西欧出现的反对或修正现代主义建筑的思潮。第二次世界大战结束后，现代主义建筑成为世界许多地区占主导地位的建筑潮流。但是在现代主义建筑阵营内部很快就出现了分歧，一些人对现代主义的建筑观点和风格提出怀疑和批评。由此而出现了后现代主义建筑，也叫做“反现代主义”、“现代主义之后”和“后现代主义”。其下也包括多种风格分类。

浅谈欧洲设计的历史发展论文

欧洲建筑在大的概念上应归属于西方建筑从古希腊时代起到20世纪三四十年代欧洲一直是西方建筑文明的中心第二次世界大战结束后这个中心逐渐偏移到了北美虽然有更为早期的欧洲原始建筑但是欧洲建筑真正的源头是古希腊文明公元前5世纪到公元前4世纪古希腊的建筑艺术达到鼎盛以雅典卫城及其神庙为代表的一个个建筑杰作横空出世它们简单而纯净和谐而完美具有惊人的艺术创造力公元前1世纪古希腊人的"光荣"被古罗马人的"伟大"所取代后者兴建的宫殿、凯旋门、竞技场、剧场和大浴场雄伟壮观富丽堂皇他们和古希腊建筑一道被视为垂范千古的经典成为西方建筑文化最深刻的根源在接下来中世纪的1000余年中欧洲建筑具有两大特点一是基督教堂和修道院始终是欧洲建筑的主体二是伴随着罗马帝国和基督教的分裂东西欧洲的建筑风格逐渐各树一帜其中在东欧的东罗马帝国拜占庭建筑影响十分广泛而在罗马风建筑之后兴起于西欧的哥特式建筑则体现了中世纪建筑的最高成就从15世纪的文艺复兴运动开始信奉人文主义的艺术大师们又把西方建筑从宗教天国拉回了人间大地在这一过程中大师们特别注重研究古代经典建筑热情复兴古希腊古罗马的建筑风格并在此基础上进行了艺术再创造为世界留下了众多光辉灿烂的建筑杰作此后直到19世纪下半叶欧洲建筑艺术思潮更迭频繁四五百年间先后出现了巴洛克、古典主义、洛可可、新古典主义、浪漫主义、和折衷主义等不同的建筑风格其间教会势力、享乐之风、绝对君权、异国情调和百年战争都曾成为艺术蜕变的催化剂历史发展到19世纪末20世纪初在大工业日益兴盛的背景下西方建筑的传统形制和美学体系发生了根本性的变化其设计的核心从以往的注重审美明显的转移到追求技术与功能上这直接导致了现代主义建筑的成熟和向全世界的扩散而20世纪70年代之后现代主义建筑的发展极端——“国际式”建筑对西方世界多年的垄断又被“后现代主义建筑”打破一个多种风格流派争相登场的局面呈现在今天

浅谈欧洲设计的历史发展论文题目

我的广告设计由主的设计的设计风格与形式上的区别，中国人比较劳动是传统式的，欧洲的，他比较现代化的

欧洲设计的发展经历了三个阶段：1）设计的萌芽阶段；2）手工艺设计阶段；3）工业设计阶段。

写论包豪斯思想的弊端

关于欧洲历史的论文摘要

从476年西罗马帝国灭亡到1500年左右的欧洲历史，被西方史学家称为“中世纪”。它是古代希腊罗马文明消亡与近代资本主义社会之间的一段历史。中国历史学家习惯上称之为西欧封建社会。而在中国，公元前221年秦始皇统一中国至1912年辛亥革命结束之间的两千多年习惯上被认为是中国的封建社会（个人认为“封建”的定义在这里体现的不太准确，“封建”更为分散，中国的封建王朝更确切说是“中央集权王朝”）中西双方的封建社会必定会在各个方面存在着或大或小的差异。中国作为一个独立的国家，而西欧是一块地域，包含许多国家，比较时按照普遍情况与显著特点进行论证。一、最高统治者的权利。中西双方的封建社会都具有等级制度森严的特点，但其中又有不同。在西欧，国王把土地分给大封建主，大封建主又再层层分封。大小封建主拥有完全自己所属的土地，自己的庄园、农奴和武装。相对更加独立，国王的权利没有中国的皇帝那么大。在中国，遵循“普天之下，莫非王土”中国版图内所有土地归皇帝所有，皇帝是最大的封建主。之下的郡县也归皇帝所领导的封建统治阶级管理。会有诸侯分封土地的情况，但在封建制度完善的封建社会后期，诸侯的实力远远比不上皇帝。偶尔会有“坐上犯乱”的情况，但封建王朝最终还是被农民起义推翻，很少有诸侯起义推翻的。诸侯的权利远远不及西欧的公侯伯子男等封建主。二、政权的稳定。西欧封建社会，之所以称它为黑暗，我想很大一部分原因是因为政教矛盾冲突或政教勾结沆瀣一气。天主教权与国王的权利产生了冲突，俗话说“一山不容二虎“，无论是哪一方都想占尽最大的利益，在封建社会就是土地和农奴。无论是明争暗斗还是相互勾结，最终受苦的还是下层被统治阶级。说实话，谁统治并不重要，反正下层阶级只是被统治。政教的冲突使西欧的中世纪黑暗混乱。所以可以说在西欧中世纪，王权不仅没有得到支持，还有一个很大的权利威胁者。但在中国，最大的冲突不过农民起义，但那也是阶级与阶级之间。封建统治者的的统治，有儒教、法家的支持。就算西汉末年伊始，佛教传入中国，在不同时期，统治阶层也可以断章取义让佛教教义为自己的统治服务，让人民更好的臣服于自己。所以说在中国，没有更大的统治阶层的威胁，宗教甚至可以帮助统治。三、阶级矛盾。在西欧，社会主要矛盾是封建主与农奴之间，在中国是地主阶级和农民阶级。其实个人认为，西周在大家的印象中不属于封建社会，但西周的分封制和西欧的等级制度相似度很高。西周天子分诸侯，诸侯分卿大夫，层层分封下去。在周朝末年，诸侯的力量崛起，周天子除了是个完整国家的象征，也不具备什么实权。这和西欧的大封建主的独立性实在相像。但是毕竟现代历史学有西方传入，“封建”“奴隶”“农奴”“农民”的具体定义可能在传入的时候又模糊的地方。西欧的农奴是否有人身自由，劳动后是否有权拥有剩余产品，等等，还有待深入研究。但两种阶级矛盾的根源都一样，都是剥削与被剥削。四、人民的斗争。11至12世纪西欧城市普遍兴起。在西欧城市重新兴起和工商业迅速的发展的过程中，市民阶级形成。市民阶层的上层发展为早期的资产阶级。他们制定自己的法律，建立自己的武装，向封建主发起挑战，成为欧洲反封建王权的强大革命力量。而反观中国，早期的资本主义萌芽在明末清初的纺织业中。此时距封建王朝的形成已有一千多年的历史，民族资本主义萌芽自破土之后就遭到重重压抑。腐朽的封建制度严重阻碍了资本主义萌芽的成长。中国的强大与兴盛，源于封建社会形成的早，历史悠久，制度完善。但当西方发展资本主义，向下一个阶段过渡时，中国仍沉浸在自给自足的封建生产模式中。说到底也是因为封建的形成太早，想要撼动一个根深蒂固的制度，谈何容易？兴也封建，衰也封建。总结：中西方在发展过程中存在太多太多的差异，由思想观念、生产方式、宗教信仰等等一系列因素导致。也是因为这些不同，更加激发了人们对历史深层次研究的兴趣。中国与西欧的封建之比较，在此赘述，仅凭一己之见，纯属个人观点。希望自己可以在知识积累的过程中，对这个问题能够有更成熟更深入的看法。

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欧洲自公元500年至公元1500年的一千年间被称为中世纪，这个时期历来被认为是欧洲最为黑暗的时期。由于蛮族的入侵和定居引起了罗马帝国的崩溃，几乎造成当时欧洲文化的完全毁灭。西欧的封建制度便是在这一背景下，由日尔曼、罗马和基督教三种因素互相融合，从罗马灭亡后的废墟上产生、发展起来的。骑士制度同样也产生于中世纪的欧洲，是欧洲在封建化的过程中逐步产生、确立起来的封建附庸制度。中世纪的欧洲国家是一种松懈的领土集合体。在一个国家里，以皇帝、国王、公爵等为最高领主，其他大贵族则以向其宣誓效忠来换取封地——“采邑”，从而成为最高领主的附庸。这些附庸各自又可以拥有从属于自己的附庸，直到拥有少量土地或无地的骑士们，如此便构成了西欧完整的封建等级体系。

关于欧洲历史的论文摘要英文

笨笨 6级 2009-04-28 Europe is， by convention， one of the world's seven Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia， Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains， the Ural River， the Caspian Sea， and by the Caucasus Mountains to the Europe is washed upon to the north by the Arctic Ocean and other bodies of water， to the west by the Atlantic Ocean， to the south by the Mediterranean Sea， and to the southeast by the Black Sea and the waterways connecting it to the M Yet， the borders for Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are somewhat arbitrary， as the term continent can refer to a cultural and political distinction or a physiographic This article is primarily about the first two aspects， although it references Europe's Europe is the world's second-smallest continent by surface area， covering about 10，180，000 square kilometres (3，930，000 sq mi) or 2% of the Earth's surface and about 8% of its land Of Europe's approximately 50 states， Russia is the largest by both area and population， while the Vatican City is the Europe is the third most populous continent after Asia and Africa， with a population of 731 million or about 11% of the world's population; however， according to the United Nations (medium estimate)， Europe's share may fall to about 7% in 补充：Modern Western Europe is the birthplace of Western European (particularly Western European) nations played a predominant role in global affairs from the 16th century onwards， especially after the beginning of Between the 17th and 20th centuries， European nations controlled at various times the Americas， most of Africa， Australasia and large portions of A Demographic changes and the two World Wars led to a decline in European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the United States and Soviet Union took During the Cold War Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the West and the Warsaw Pact in the E European integration led to the formation of the Council of Europe and the European Union in Western Europe， both of which have been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 补充：The use of the term "Europe" has developed gradually throughout In antiquity， the Greeks divided the world into three continents， Europe， Asia and Libya (Africa)， with the River Nile and the complex system of waterways between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Azov providing the Flavius Josephus and the Book of Jubilees described the continents as the lands given by Noah to his three sons; Europe was defined as between the Pillars of Hercules at Cadiz， separating it from Africa， and the River Don， separating it from A This division – as much cultural as geographical – was used until the Late Middle Ages， when it was challenged by the Age of D The problem of redefining Europe was finally resolved in 1730 when， instead of waterways， the Swedish geographer and cartographer von Strahlenberg proposed the Ural Mountains as the most significant eastern boundary， a suggestion that found favour in Russia and throughout E补充：太多了，翻译不了。我尽量吧。欧洲，全称欧罗巴洲（希腊文：Ευρώπη），字源于希腊神话的“欧罗巴”，是世界第六大洲，面积10，180，000平方千米（3，931，000平方英里），人口7亿1千2百万（2008年），是世界人口第三多的洲，仅次于亚洲和非洲，人口密度平均每平方公里70人，共有48个已独立国家，欧洲东以乌拉山脉、乌拉河，东南以里海、高加索山脉和黑海与亚洲为界，西、西北隔大西洋、格陵兰海、丹麦海峡与北美洲相望，北接北极海，南隔地中海与非洲相望。欧洲最北端是挪威的北角，最南端是西班牙的马罗基角，欧洲是世界上第二小的洲、大陆，仅比大洋洲大一些，其与亚洲合称为欧亚大陆，而与亚洲、非洲合称为欧亚非大陆。欧洲名字的来历可能是来自希腊神话中的一个叫做欧罗巴的女子，她受到变成公牛的宙斯的引诱一个更学术性的说法是：这个词可能来源于闪族语(ereb)，表示“日落之地”通常，根据政治、经济、文化或实际考虑，欧洲的边界线并不总是一样的。这就使得人们产生了几个不同“欧洲”的观念。

English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers and Roman auxiliary troops from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the Northern N Initially， Old English was a diverse group of dialects， reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of E One of these dialects， Late West Saxon， eventually came to The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of The first was by language speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family; they conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th The second was the Normans in the 11th century， who spoke Old French and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-N These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages， who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication)Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of the European This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and Thus， English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge Proto-EnglishThe Germanic tribes who gave rise to the English language (the Angles， Saxons， Frisians， Jutes and perhaps even the Franks)， traded with and fought with the Latin-speaking Roman Empire in the process of the Germanic invasion of Europe from the E Many Latin words for common objects therefore entered the vocabulary of these Germanic people even before any of these tribes reached Britain; examples include camp， cheese， cook， fork， inch， kettle， kitchen， linen， mile， mill， mint (coin)， noon， pillow， pin， pound， punt (boat)， street， and The Romans also gave English words which they had themselves borrowed from other languages: anchor， butter， chest， devil， dish， sack and According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle， around the year 449， Vortigern， King of the Britons， invited the "Angle kin" (Angles led by Hengest and Horsa) to help him in conflicts with the P In return， the Angles were granted lands in the southeast of E Further aid was sought and in response "came men of Ald Seaxum of Anglum of Iotum" (Saxons， Angles and Jutes) The Chronicle talks of a subsequent influx of settlers who eventually established seven kingdoms， known as the Modern scholarship considers most of this story to be legendary and politically motivated and the identification of the tribes with the Angles， Saxons and Jutes is no longer accepted as an accurate description (Myres， 1986， 46ff)， especially since the Anglo-Saxon language is more similar to the Frisian languages than any single one of the Old EnglishThe invaders' Germanic language displaced the indigenous Brythonic languages of what became E The Celtic languages remained in Scotland， Wales and C The dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons formed what is now called Old E Later， it was strongly influenced by the North Germanic language Norse， spoken by the Vikings who invaded and settled mainly in the northeast of England (see Jórvík and Danelaw) The new and the earlier settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar， although their grammars were more distinct， including the prefix， suffix and inflection patterns for many of their The Germanic language of these Old English speaking inhabitants of Britain was influenced by contact with Norse invaders， which might have been responsible for some of the morphological simplification of Old English， including loss of grammatical gender and explicitly marked case (with the notable exception of the pronouns) The most famous surviving work from the Old English period is a fragment of the epic poem "Beowulf"， by an unknown poet， though substantially modified， likely by one or more Christian clerics long after its The period when England was ruled by Anglo-Saxon kings， with the assistance of Anglo-Saxon clergy， was a period when the Old English language was alive and Since it was used for legal， political， religious and other intellectual purposes， Old English coined new words from native Anglo-Saxon roots， rather than "borrowing" foreign (This point is made in a standard text， The History of the English Language， by B)The introduction of Christianity added another wave of Latin and some Greek The Old English period formally ended with the Norman conquest， when the language was influenced， to an even greater extent， by the Norman French-speaking NThe use of Anglo-Saxon to describe a merging of Anglian and Saxon languages and cultures is a relatively modern According to Lois Fundis， (Stumpers-L， Fri， 14 Dec 2001) "The first citation for the second definition of 'Anglo-Saxon'， referring to early English language or a certain dialect thereof， comes during the reign of Elizabeth I， from a historian named Camden， who seems to be the person most responsible for the term becoming well-known in modern "Middle EnglishFor about 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066， the Norman kings and their high nobility spoke only a variety of French called Anglo-N English continued to be the language of the common Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years of the invasion most of the Normans outside the royal court had switched to English， with French remaining the prestige language of government and law largely out of social For example， Orderic Vitalis， a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight， said that he learned French only as a second A tendency for French-derived words to have more formal connotations has continued to the present day; most modern English speakers would consider a "cordial reception" (from French) to be more formal than a "hearty welcome" (Germanic) Another homely example is that of the names for meats， such as beef and pork from French boeuf and The animals from which the meats come are called by Anglo Saxon words， such as cow and This might be because Anglo-Saxon peasants raised the animals; Norman-French lords ate the While the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle continued until 1154， most other literature from this period was in Old French or L A large number of Norman words were taken into Old English， with many doubling for Old English words (examples include， ox/beef， sheep/mutton and so on) The Norman influence reinforced the continued changes in the language over the following centuries， producing what is now referred to as Middle E Among the changes was an increase in the use of a unique aspect of English grammar， the "continuous" tenses， with the suffix "-ing" English spelling was also influenced by French in this period， with the /θ/ and /ð/ sounds being spelled th rather than with the Old English letters þ (thorn) and ð (eth)， which did not exist in F The most famous writer from the Middle English period is Geoffrey Chaucer and of his works， The Canterbury Tales is the best English literature started to reappear ca 1200， when a changing political climate and the decline in Anglo-Norman made it more By the end of that century， even the royal court had switched to E Anglo-Norman remained in use in limited circles somewhat longer， but it had ceased to be a living Early Modern EnglishModern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift， which took place mainly during the 15th English was further transformed by the spread of a standardised London-based dialect in government and administration and by the standardising effect of By the time of William Shakespeare (mid-late 16th century) the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern EEnglish has continuously adopted foreign words， especially from Latin and Greek， since the R (In the 17th century， Latin words were often used with the original inflections， but these eventually ) As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable， the risk of mispronunciation is high， but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects， most notably in the West CIn 1755 Samuel Johnson published the first significant English dictionary， his Dictionary of the English L

你也是选修英文西方历史文化的孩纸吧

Europeis，byconvention，oneoftheworld'ComprisingthewesternmostpeninsulaofEurasia，EuropeisgenerallydividedfromAsiatoitseastbythewaterdivideoftheUralMountains，theUralRiver，theCaspianSea，andbytheCaucasusMEuropeiswashedupontothenorthbytheArcticOceanandotherbodiesofwater，tothewestbytheAtlanticOcean，tothesouthbytheMediterraneanSea，andtothesoutheastbytheBlackSeaandthewaterwaysconnectingittotheMYet，thebordersforEurope—aconceptdatingbacktoclassicalantiquity—aresomewhatarbitrary，Thisarticleisprimarilyaboutthefirsttwoaspects，althoughitreferencesEurope'Europeistheworld'ssecond-smallestcontinentbysurfacearea，coveringabout10，180，000squarekilometres(3，930，000sqmi)or2%oftheEarth'8%OfEurope'sapproximately50states，Russiaisthelargestbybothareaandpopulation，whiletheVaticanCEuropeisthethirdmostpopulouscontinentafterAsiaandAfrica，withapopulationof731millionorabout11%oftheworld'spopulation;however，accordingtotheUnitedNations(mediumestimate)，Europe'ssharemayfalltoabout7%